Self-Assembly and Fabrication on the Atomic Level Enable Nanomanipulation

Nanomanipulation can be divided into two categories: fabrication and self-assembly. Fabrication is the construction of things on the atomic or near-atomic level. Self-assembly relies on chemical processes or other natural forces to automate the construction of atomic structures, similar to the replication of DNA in the human body.

Basic nanostructures encompass such simple and useful items as wires (a thin line of conducting atoms surrounded by an equally thin shell of insulating atoms), rods (which can be used in a variety of applications, from information storage and sensors to miniature diodes, cathodes and other integral components for electronics) and dots (small but exceedingly useful markers that can be used as atomic tracking devices). Other materials that will no doubt become extremely useful for self-assembly include nanocatalysts, which speed up chemical reactions.

Fabrication: Many of the tools that scientists have developed to manipulate atomic structures were based on the tools they originally used to scan such structures. Tiny scanning arms can be used to push, pull or lift and move atoms around like miniature bulldozers or cranes. Atomic force microscopes (AFMs) and electron bombardment tools can be used to “write” on atomic surfaces. Of course, many of these techniques have proven far too cumbersome for commercial or industrial production: trying to produce significant amounts of nanomaterial one atom at a time could take centuries. Instead, scientists have developed other techniques more useful for large-scale operations. For example, micro imprint lithography carves lines into a surface, forming a template that can be used to make “prints” of the original, so the actual inscription only needs to be made once. Dip-pen nanolithography uses a scanning tip much like a ballpoint pen to lay down molecular “ink.” Physical and chemical vapor deposition devices are another innovation, much like the miniature nozzles found in an ink jet printer, to spread an incredibly thin layer of a substance over a given area.

Self-Assembly and Viruses: The most promising technique for industrial and commercial purposes, however, is self-assembly, of which there are several different types, including polymerization and crystal growth. In polymerization, the chemical and electric attractions found in basic elements are used to make incredibly long molecules, usually by heating, mixing or running electric currents through various chemicals. Polymerization has been used for decades, such as in the creation of ultra-hard or ultra-durable plastic polymers, but our understanding of the chemical processes that occur between elements has expanded to a degree that makes it possible to produce much “smarter” materials. Such is the case with crystalline self-assembly, where a prototype structure is made which then replicates or extends itself into much larger formations. Viruses are often the building blocks used to make these structures, since they naturally organize themselves into orderly patterns and can be easily engineered to genetically bind themselves and organize inorganic materials such as those used to make battery electrodes, transistors and solar cells.

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